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Purpose

The aim of this study was twofold, first to examine the relationship between developmental leadership (a Scandinavian culture adapted version of transformational leadership) and instrumental leadership, as well as the relationship between these leadership variables and indices of performance and job satisfaction. Second, to identify individual patterns regarding developmental and instrumental leadership.

Design/methodology/approach

Using a longitudinal design, questionnaire data were collected three times among Swedish conscripts and voluntarily employed soldiers during their basic military training (n = 667 at T1, n = 503 at T2 and n = 554 at T3).

Findings

The main findings were: (1) high observed correlations between the developmental and instrumental leadership scales on all measurement occasions; (2) a low to moderate amount of explained variance explained by these leadership scales in regression analyses with performance and job satisfaction as dependent variables, where developmental leadership was strongly associated with ratings of job satisfaction and instrumental leadership accounted for a higher proportion of the variance on ratings of performance and (3) the identification of three distinct profiles of response patterns on the leadership scales, which were fairly similar across time and indicate a temporal consistency of leadership styles.

Research limitations/implications

Methodological strengths include the longitudinal study design, the comparatively large sample size, the use of well-established measurement scales and the person-centered approach allowing for the identification of response patterns. Study weaknesses include too few background variables and the use of self-report ratings only. From a work and organizational perspective, the sample with low-level conscripts and soldiers could also be regarded as unusual.

Practical implications

Education of leaders should focus on the importance of both interpersonal and instrumental aspects. There is also a need for development of leadership training fostering leaders’ instrumental leadership skills.

Originality/value

The study responds to the call from leadership researchers to further research on instrumental leadership and its relationship to the FRLT across diverse organizational contexts. Longitudinal comparisons of developmental (transformational) and instrumental leadership resulted in more trustworthy results as both a variable-oriented and a person-oriented approach was used.

Research shows that high-level military and sport leaders share a high-stress and high-stakes leader role due to similar experiences of demanding conditions mainly manifested in psychological burden. This raises research questions about leaders’ psychological strategies to maintain their mental health and performance under demanding conditions. Thus, the current study investigated how experienced demanding conditions were related to self-rated leader performance level and mental health indicators among high-level military and sport leaders and whether the application of psychological skills by these leaders moderated these relationships. A composite questionnaire was used to collect data longitudinally, once a week for four consecutive weeks. Fifty-two Swedish high-ranking military officers and executives in elite team sport organizations completed the questionnaire. Multilevel analysis revealed no effect of demanding conditions on leader performance, but they harmed leader vitality and were associated with higher stress symptoms. Moreover, psychological skills did not moderate the relationship between demanding conditions and leader performance. However, motivational and instructional self-talk negatively moderated the relationship between demanding conditions and vitality. In contrast, emotional regulation, comprised of mindfulness and cognitive reappraisal, positively moderated vitality. Emphasizing the nuanced application of psychological skills is crucial while avoiding one-sided beliefs about their positive effects. Interventions are suggested to focus on vitality and related psychological skills to ensure leaders feel good while performing under demanding conditions. More cross-contextual leadership research, suggestively applied research, is needed to better understand the links between high-level military and sport leaders’ psychological skills, leader performance, and mental health under demanding conditions.

In contrast to an acute crisis that must be dealt with immediately, the handling of low-intensity crisis such as pandemics, cyber threats, climate crisis, increased resistance to antibiotics, etc. can often wait. However, it cannot wait too long because then the cost can be detrimental. The aim was to systematically review and evaluate the research on leadership and management at the organizational level in low-intensity crisis. A scoping review was performed which was limited to peer-review based articles, focusing on leadership and management at the organizational level. The analysis consisted of an explorative, inductive thematic analysis. Codes were identified in the texts and formed the basis of categories, which, in turn, were grouped into themes. The following four themes emerged in the analysis of the obtained literature: (1) general framing conditions; (2) predominantly management-related aspects; (3) predominantly leadership-related aspects; and (4) predominantly subordinate-related aspects. Most aspects found can be related to general leadership and management research and studies on short-term, acute crisis. A key finding was that few peer-reviewed articles were found, confirming that leadership and management in low-intensity crisis is an under-researched area. Given the challenges of ongoing and expected low-intensity crisis, more research focusing specifically on this kind of leadership and management is needed.

The aim was to: (1) identify individual profiles in young men regarding personality and cognitive appraisal style employing easy-to-use instruments, and (2) to explore how such profiles relate to biological stress indicators. The sample consisted of 173 male Lithuanian conscripts. An assessment was made after one month into their basic military training. Levels of cortisol, cortisone and testosterone were established through analysis of hair samples. Psychological assessments included the Big Five model of personality as well as cognitive appraisal style and perceived stress during the previous month of service. Four unique personality profiles were identified in a cluster analysis that differed significantly as theoretically expected on the Perceived Stress Scale. Statistically significant between-profile differences were found on cortisol and cortisone but not on testosterone. The personality profile with the highest scores on all three biological markers was characterized by high scores on Extraversion and Openness and low scores on Agreeableness. Second, three distinct cognitive appraisal style profiles emerged. They were related as theoretically expected to perceived stress, but they were unrelated to the hair steroid hormone concentration levels. Third, the combination of the most psychologically vulnerable personality profile, which included low scores on Emotional stability, and the most stressed cognitive appraisal style profile, yielded the clearest result and showed that it was possible to detect individuals with significantly higher stress-related hair steroid hormone levels using psychological instruments. Practical potential implications include identification of individuals who are most psychologically vulnerable and in need of close monitoring.

Sammanfattning

I samband med internationella militära insatser ställs officerare och soldater inför en variation av tjänsterelaterade stressorer, däribland traumatisk händelseexponering. Trots att post-traumatisk stresstörning (PTSD) generellt sett är välstuderat i en amerikansk militär kontext, vet man mindre om dess förekomst bland svenska militära utlandsveteraner som grupp. På likartat vis vet man lite om de hälsorelaterade effekterna av moraliskt utmanande situationer, samt vilka variabler som kan associeras med moraliska skador bland svenska militära utlandsveteraner.

Syftet med föreliggande studie var att bidra med fördjupad förståelse av hälsorelaterade utfall efter traumaexponering i samband med deltagande i svenska internationella militära insatser, med ett specifikt fokus på PTSD och moralisk skada.

Studien genomfördes som en enkätstudie. Data analyserades genom sambandsanalyser för att kartlägga potentiella statistiska samband mellan variabler av intresse. Data analyserades även med mellangruppsanalyser för att se om det fanns signifikanta skillnader mellan olika grupper som kan bidra till attförklara de orsakssamband som undersöktes. Relationen mellan PTSD och moralisk skada undersöktes också.

Erhållna resultat visar, liksom tidigare forskning på området, att svenska militära utlandsveteraner mår förhållandevis bra som grupp, samtidigt som det finns individuella variationer. En mindre grupp uppvisar förekomst av PTSD-indikation och en ännu mindre grupp förekomst av indikation på moralisk skada. Något fler än de som nådde upp till gränsvärdena för indikation, uppvisade aktiva symptom som kan relateras indikation på PTSD och moralisk skada. Risken för ohälsa tycks vara som störst efter traumaexponering när stressorer enligt Akriteriet(rädslo-/hotbaserad) och moralisk skada (skam, skuld, tillitsförlust) sammanfaller i en och samma händelse, samt då man själv varit direkt involverad ihändelsen och upplever att man själv gjort sig skyldig till något som står i kontrast till egna djupt hållna värderingar.

Studien visar även på flera individ- och arbetsrelaterade faktorer som tycks ha ett samband med långsiktiga hälsoproblem. Till exempel är individer som har sökt och erhållit olika former av stöd efter hemkomst från insats (såsom att ha sökt stöd, medicinerat för ångest, depression eller sömnsvårigheter, varit sjukskriven,etc.) överrepresenterade i den grupp som skattat sin hälsa som sämst under den senaste månaden. Den högre förekomsten av indikation på PTSD och MI trots att man erhållit stöd kan indikera ett behov av behandling specifikt inriktad mot moralisk skada.

Praktiska implikationer av erhållna resultat diskuteras.

Abstract

In the context of international military operations, officers and soldiers are exposed to a variety of service-related stressors, including traumatic event exposure. Although post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is generally well-studied within an American military context, less is known about its prevalence among Swedish military veterans who have served abroad as a group. Similarly, little isknown about the health-related effects of morally challenging situations, as well as which variables may be associated with moral injury among Swedish military veterans.

The purpose of the present study was to contribute to a deeper understanding of health-related outcomes following trauma exposure in connection with participation in Swedish international military operations. This included a specific focus on PTSD and moral injury.

A survey study was conducted on Swedish military veterans who have served in international missions. Data was analyzed through statistical analyses including correlation analyses to map potential statistical relationships between variables of interest and subgroup comparisons to see if significant differences between different groups could help explain the relationships identified. The relationship between PTSD and moral injury was also examined.

The results obtained show, as with previous research in the field, that Swedish military veterans abroad are doing relatively well as a group, however, there are individual differences. A smaller group show elevated levels of PTSD indications, and an even smaller group show elevated indications of so-called moral injury. Some more individuals than those who met the cutoff thresholds for indication exhibited active symptoms that may be related to PTSD and moral injury. The risk of ill health appears to be greatest after trauma exposure that results in elevated symptoms related to both PTSD criterion A (fear-based) and moral injury symptoms (guilt, shame, loss of trust) in the same event. Specifically, when the individual has been the active party in the event and feels that they are guilty of something that is in contrast to their own deeply held values.

The study also shows several individual- and work-related factors that appearto be related to long-term health problems. For example, individuals who have sought and received various forms of support after returning from deployment (such as having sought support, taken medication for anxiety, depression or sleep difficulties, been on sick leave, etc.) are overrepresented in the group who rated their health as poorest in recent months. The higher prevalence of indications of PTSD and MI during the past month, despite having received various forms of support after returning from the deployment, may indicate a need for treatments pecifically targeted at moral injury.

Practical implications of the results are discussed.

Background: Comorbid anxiety and depression are common and can make the problems more complex and sometimes resistant to pharmacological treatment. In existing research, the diagnoses are often studied separately, and physical activity, healthy nutrition, psychoeducation, and social support have shown good effects. The aim of the present study was to explore the longitudinal effects of a comprehensive treatment on patients with comorbid anxiety and depression in a clinical context.

Method: Eighty inpatients (15 men and 65 women) in age range 23–65 years receiving psychiatric treatment in Norwegian clinic participated in the longitudinal study. Treatment was person-centered and was most frequently given for anxiety and depression, e.g., pharmacological treatment and psychotherapy, individually and in groups. In combination with this, physical activity, healthy nutrition, psychoeducation and social support in contacts with authorities and relatives were also a part of treatment. Depression and anxiety were assessed using the Beck Anxiety Inventory and Beck Depression Inventory at three points in time: baseline, at the end of treatment, and 3 months after treatment. The answers were categorized and combined into four groups according to severity of anxiety and depression to measure effects on comorbidity. Mann Whitney U test, Chi-square, Friedmans test, and McNemar test were used to analyze the data.

Result: The results showed a significant increase of frequencies in the group with mild anxiety and depression 3 months past treatment compared to baseline.

Conclusion: Through the comprehensive, person-centered treatment more patients had low levels of both anxiety and depression 3 months after treatment. We suggest that clinics working with comorbid depression and anxiety patients should add physical activity, nutrition advice, social support, and psychoeducation to the traditional treatment regimes. More research concerning comorbid anxiety and depression are urgent to further expand the treatment possibilities.

Our first aim was to explore the relationship between daily uplifts, daily hassles, and coping styles the first year after returning from international military missions and post-deployment work, family, and private reintegration in military veterans. Our second aim was to identify individual patterns regarding daily uplifts, daily hassles, and coping styles and to explore how they relate to the above-mentioned aspects of post-deployment reintegration. Questionnaire responses were received from 446 Swedish military veterans. Regression analyses showed that daily hassles and an escape-avoidance coping style made significant contributions in the predicted, negative direction to the amount of explained variance on reintegration indicator scales. A high level of perceived threat during the last mission also contributed to more negative integration. Using a person-centered approach, three unique profiles of response patterns were identified using a cluster analysis based on the uplift, hassles, and coping style scores. One profile was labeled “resilient and well-functioning”; its members showed favorable reintegration scores. A second profile was called “ambitious and struggling.” These individuals scored medium-high on the reintegration scales. The third profile consistently indicated the least favorable reintegration scores and was labeled “worried and avoidant.” The results confirm and deepen our existing knowledge.

A high number of military veterans seek professional help at primary healthcare centers for mental health problems. The main aim of this study was to map veterans’ perception of the quality of the care they received when seeking such help after their last tour of duty. A secondary aim was to explore personality and mission-related characteristics of veterans who seek professional help for mental health problems after missions. Questionnaire responses were obtained from 2512 Swedish veterans (43.4% response rate). Among the responders, 210 individuals had sought help for mental health problems at primary healthcare centers. Their perception of the quality of the healthcare was measured using the Quality from the Patient’s Perspective (QPP) questionnaire, which is derived from a theoretical model. Comparisons between the military help seekers and an age and gender matched group of civilian outpatients showed that the military group perceived the information they had received, and the commitment, empathy and respect shown by the physicians, considerably more negatively than the civilian patients. Comparisons between the help-seeking veterans and those who had not sought help, showed that the help seekers were younger and scored significantly lower on emotional stability and higher on conscientiousness. In addition, they perceived the leadership of their immediate commander during the last tour of duty more negatively and they reported fewer daily uplifts and more daily hassles during the tour. It was concluded that a more extensive collaboration between the armed forces and the healthcare system is strongly recommended and that it is necessary to provide education to healthcare providers.

This study explored existing literature regarding what social and psychological interventions currently exist for military couples/families in connection to international deployment. Asystematic scoping studies review was performed. Peer-reviewed articles were searched inthe following ProQuest databases: PsycArticles, Social Services Abstracts, and Sociological Abstracts. Twenty-four articles were identified that met the inclusion criteria. A thematic analysis was then applied. Two main themes were identified by the analysis describing the types of military support interventions, including family-based interventions and couple interventions. The existing literature covering specific interventions for military personnel and their families is limited, especially literature outside of North American military populations. Most current interventions focused on reactive psychological services, primarily during deployment and after the military employee has arrived back from duty and the family already presents symptoms of concern. Further studies are needed to represent the current support methods utilized for military personnel and their families in European contexts. Moreover, additional interventions focused on preventative health care may be a useful complement to currently offered treatment programs for helping military families mentally prepare for the specific stressors relating to military deployment. The current literature can serve as a basis for the identification of future needs in intervention and preventative psychological support for military families.

Purpose – The Indirect Leadership Questionnaire (ILQ) is constructed to measure important parts of a theoretical model of indirect leadership to be used in leadership courses for high-level managers. The ILQ consists of 15 model-derived items plus extra space that provides for free-text comments. This study aims to evaluate the psychometric properties of the ILQ, its predictive power and practical usefulness in indirect leadership courses and to evaluate the indirect leadership model in the light of new data.

Design/methodology/approach – The study sample consisted of 225 higher managers and 6–10 of their subordinates (total: 1,703). The latter were working at least two hierarchical levels below their higher manager. The managers made self-ratings, and the subordinates rated their respective higher manager using the ILQ.

Findings – Results showed that the ILQ has acceptable psychometric properties in terms of dimensionality(two model-compatible factors were obtained), reliability, discriminability and predictive power. Previousproblems with many “Don’t know” responses from subordinates working two or more hierarchical levels below their higher manager were considerably reduced. A qualitative analysis of the free-text responsess howed that indirect leadership behaviors that can be seen as inspirational influence and communication skills should be more emphasized in future indirect leadership courses. The leaders’ personality, task-related competence and performance-orientation were also highlighted more than in the indirect leadership model.

Research limitations/implications – It was concluded that the ILQ is a useful tool in indirect leadership courses but that it is too limited to be used as a basis for theory development of indirect leadership.

Originality/value – The ILQ has acceptable psychometric properties and provides an easy-to-use tool togain practical, usable knowledge of the “how’s” of indirect leadership